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Planned construction of up to 12 mainstream dams on the Lower Mekong is testing the strength and effectiveness of a 1995 treaty commitment by Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam to cooperative and sustainable water resources development under the framework of the intergovernmental Mekong River Commission (MRC). China and Myanmar (Burma), which also share the river, are only observers within the MRC. Several developments provide grounds for cautious optimism that the transboundary ecosystems and resources of the Lower Mekong can be effectively and sustainably managed.

The Laos government’s approval of a highly controversial hydropower dam project in the country’s northern Xayaburi Province became the primary trigger for these developments. The regional reaction to the Xayaburi dam project thus far makes clear that the seriously skewed distribution of the transboundary costs and benefits of mainstream dams has the potential to be a game-changer for regional governance[1].

Energy-hungry China’s construction of a massive cascade of eight dams on the upper half of the Mekong already poses a direct and significant threat to the future of the river and the livelihoods of 65 million people—mainly in the lower, Southeast Asian half of the river. The first four completed Chinese dams are already altering the river’s hydrology and impeding the flow of nutrient-rich silt that sustains soil productivity and nurtures fisheries downstream, as well as keeping the sea at bay in the Mekong Delta.

The proposed Lower Mekong dams would block the migration of hundreds of fish species that are an important source of food and income, as well as cause the extinction of several species such as the giant Mekong catfish. In return, all of the power generated would constitute only about six to eight percent of the total estimated electrical demand in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) by 2030. Most of the power would go to Thailand, which has hardly begun to institute energy efficiency measures that could make the mainstream dams unnecessary.

All of these threats are compounded by the ongoing and expected future effects of climate change; specifically, rising sea levels, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme climate events such as drought, flood, and coastal inundation from cyclonic storms. Climate change has not been factored into hydropower development plans either in Yunnan or the Lower Mekong countries, where scores of large dams have already been built or at various stages of planning and construction on tributaries.

The biggest obstacle to a shared future for the Mekong Basin may be the inevitably inequitable distribution of the costs and benefits of mainstream dams, should they be built, among communities and countries. At the same time, the “transboundary difference” radically changes the geopolitical dynamics in a manner that gives reason for cautious optimism.

Developing country governments regularly ignore the costs borne by poor communities who subsist on a natural resource to gain a perceived larger national benefit. It’s another matter when a project largely benefits country A and the environmental and socioeconomic costs are disproportionately borne by countries B, C, and D.

The upstream countries, China and Laos, have the most mainstream hydropower potential, and are positioned to reap most of the benefits of damming the river. The heavy socioeconomic costs will be disproportionately borne by downstream countries, especially Cambodia, Vietnam and riverine parts of Thailand.

Estimates of the costs and benefits of the proposed Lower Mekong dams are highly sensitive to assumptions regarding key economic variables. The MRC’s Basin Development Plan (BDP2) estimates a cumulative net economic benefit of $33.4 billion over 20 years[2]. An extensive Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) commissioned by the MRC used the same data base, yet found that the risks and uncertainties are so great that it urged a ten year moratorium on mainstream dam construction to allow further study of these risks[3].

Another study commissioned by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) carried out a “sensitivity” analysis of the BDP2 estimates and reached an even more alarming conclusion. A range of assumptions were applied to the BDP2 data for: the current market value of lost fisheries, the value of wetlands, and the discounted net present value of lost environmental services. Radically different estimates emerged. The total economic benefits for 11 dams ranged from an unimpressive $6.6 billion to a staggeringly negative $274.4 billion. Whereas all four MRC countries had positive total economic benefits under the BDP2’s assumptions, only Laos has a net benefit under the assumptions in the later study. The worst case impacts ranged from -$128.9 billion for Thailand, -$110.3 billion for Cambodia, and about -$50 billion for Vietnam[4].

The drumbeat of negative findings has attracted the attention of Laos’ neighbors and emboldened civil society. Vietnam, in particular, actively encouraged public meetings and media coverage of the threat that mainstream dams posed to the Mekong Delta, which is already suffering the effects of pollution, poor water management, and a rising sea level.

Fortunately, the 1995 treaty that created the MRC includes procedures for notification, prior consultation and agreement (PNPCA) in the case of mainstream dams. Beginning in October 2010 the MRC organized a series of public meetings throughout the region that was much criticized for being inadequate. Nonetheless, when representatives of the four countries met in Vientiane, Laos, in April 2011, after the conclusion of the specified 6-month review period, Vietnam, Cambodia, and even Thailand declined to give their approval, citing concerns about the environmental and socioeconomic impact of the project on their countries. In a subsequent meeting with the Prime Minister of Vietnam and at a meeting of all four prime ministers in the wings of the ASEAN Summit in Bali, in November 2011, the Lao Prime Minister committed to an indefinite suspension of the project pending further studies and agreed to seek funding from Japan for that purpose. The four governments formally ratified the agreement at a special meeting of the MRC Council on December 8, in Siem Reap, Cambodia.

Whether the delay of the Xayaburi project will be a permanent turning point towards cooperative and sustainable development depends critically on follow-up action. The construction of access roads to the site is well advanced and continued despite the announced suspension of the project by the Lao government.

The suspension of the Xayaburi project was thrown into question when the Thai development company announced in early April that it had signed a contract with its own Lao-registered subsidiary to begin dam construction on March 15, 2012. Not only did environmentalists and civil society cry foul; in an unusual public show of regional discord Vietnam’s representative to the MRC charged that the action contradicted both the Lao government’s commitment and the subsequent agreement of the MRC Council. Cambodia has raised the possibility of legal action.

The MRC, its member countries, and the international donor community must support comprehensive new analysis of the potential costs and benefits, and do so quickly. In the best case, a new norm, a “Mekong Standard” for project planning, engineering, and environmental and socioeconomic impact assessments will emerge and form the basis for regional decision making[5]. The most urgent need is for the US, Japan and other “friends of the Mekong” countries to provide the resources to support further studies. In April 2012, Japan announced that it would fund such a study; what happens next is unclear. Laos cannot be expected to keep the project suspended if the new studies of mainstream dam impacts do not begin soon, but the issue would be moot if dam construction is already underway.

References:

1. Mekong River Commission (MRC) 2011, ‘Replies from Notified Countries’, viewed April 2012, http://www.mrcmekong.org/news-and-events/consultations/proposed-xayaburi-hydropower-project-prior-consultation-process/.
2. MRC 2011, ‘Basin Development Plan Programme – Phase 2: Assessment of Basin-wide Development Scenarios Main Report’, viewed April 2012, http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Other-Documents/BDP/Assessment-of-Basin-wide-dev-Scenarios-MainReport-2011.pdf.
3. International Centre for Environmental Management 2010, ‘Strategic Environmental Assessment of Hydropower on the Mekong Mainstream – Final Report’, viewed April 2012, http://www.icem.com.au/documents/envassessment/mrc_sea_hp/SEA_Final_Report_Oct_2010.pdf.
4. Costanza, R, Kubiszewski, I, Paquet, P, King, J, Shpresa, H, Sanguanngoi, H, Bach, NL, Frankel, R, Ganaseni, J, Intralawan, A & Morell, D 2011, ‘Planning Approaches for Water Resources Development in the Lower Mekong Basin’, Portland State University and Mae Fah Luang University, viewed April 2012, http://web.pdx.edu/~kub/publicfiles/Mekong/LMB_Report_FullReport.pdf.
5. Cronin, R & Hamlin, T 2012, ‘Mekong Turning Point: Shared River for a Shared Future’, Stimson Center, Washington DC, viewed April 2012, http://www.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/SRSF_Web_2.pdf.

A printable pdf version of this article is available here.

Dr. Cronin is the Director of the Southeast Asia program at the Stimson Center in Washington DC. He works on transboundary and non-traditional security issues in the Mekong Basin and Southeast Asia, from a political economy perspective. He is the lead co-author of Mekong Turning Point: Shared River for a Shared Future[5], which provides the basis for the present article and was published in February 2012. Dr. Cronin also co-authored a previous report on mainstream Mekong dams in 2010, entitled Mekong Tipping Point, and has also recently written or co-authored several articles on Thailand’s regional relations. He joined Stimson following a long career in the Congressional Research Service and has previously taught at John Hopkins University and Chuo University, Tokyo. Dr. Cronin can be contacted at rcronin@stimson.org.

The views expressed in this article belong to the individual authors and do not represent the views of the Global Water Forum, the UNESCO Chair in Water Economics and Transboundary Water Governance, UNESCO, the Australian National University, or any of the institutions to which the authors are associated. Please see the Global Water Forum terms and conditions here.

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Know your network-World Wetlands Day 2012

Happy #WorldWetlandsDay 2012

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Tunisia’s Direction générale des Forêts, the Ramsar Convention’s implementing authority in that country, is marking World Wetlands Day 2012 with ceremonies announcing the addition of 15 new Wetlands of International Importance and the launch of a new atlas of Tunisian Ramsar Sites. The new designations include six dams and reservoirs, four permanent or intermittent saline lakes, two marine areas (the Golfe de Boughrara and the Îles Kerkennah), the famous Gorges de Thelja, and two additional freshwater sources.

The preparatory work to support these new designations was carried out with support from the WWF International Freshwater Programme, WWF Mediterranean Programme, WWF Tunis Office, and the MAVA Foundation. Tunisia now has 35 Ramsar Sites covering an area of 821,009 hectares.

Barrage de Sidi El Barrak. 02/02/12; Beja; 2,734 ha; 37°00’41”N 009°01’18”E. One of the most important dams and reservoirs in Tunisia for its use for irrigation, supply of potable water to the Tunis and Sfax areas and the Sahel, and amelioration of the quality of water of the Medjerda Cap Bon canal. The site, adjacent to the Mediterranean coast in the northwest, is rich in fish species, including the vulnerable Common Carp Cyprinus carpio, and mammals like the near-threatened otter Lutra lutra among others. The wetland produces over 100 tons of fish per year for commercial purposes, especially the Mediterranean sea bass and the Zander. It is characterized by natural and artificial forests rich in both timber and non-timber forest products, and provides a source of livelihood for most of the local population who carry out agricultural practices as well as fishing around the area. It has just been connected to the national network of Tunisian waters through the Sejnanae dam. Ramsar Site no. 2017. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Barrage de Sidi Saad. 02/02/12; Kairouan; 8,650 ha; 35°22’N 009°40’E. A dam and reservoir that was created in 1981 to fight against floods of the river Zeroud and ensures a supply of potable water in the region of Kairouan. It is a breeding zone for several fish species and includes introduced freshwater fish like the carp Ctenopharingodron sp., zander Sander lucioperca, common roach Rutilus rutilus, rudd Scardinius erythrophtalmus and catfish Silurus glanis, as well as the introduced marine Mullet, and occasionally the semi-aquatic turtle Mauremys leprosa is observed on the site. It supports several species of waterbirds including herons, the coot Fulica atra, and Great Crested Grebe. The watershed is located in the Mediterranean Biome-North Africa and characterized by high relief hosting some tufted reeds and benthic fauna, dominated by phanerogram plants like the sago pondweed Potamogeton pectinatus. The site is state-owned but provides livelihoods through fishing and irrigated agriculture to people in the region, though over-exploitation of these resources is seen as a potential threat. Ramsar Site no 2018. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Barrage Merguellil. 02/02/12; Kairouan; 714 ha; 35°33’57”N 009°44’19”E. A reservoir and dam equipped with water and soil conservation techniques intended to intensify and enhance agricultural production within the basin. It is home to diverse species at different critical stages of their life cycle, including the endangered White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. There are several waterbird species including Ardea cinerea, Egretta garzetta, Marmaronetta angustirostris, Phalacrocorax carbo, and Sylvia melanocephala. Within the basin, Eucalyptus sp is the dominant plant in the forest flora. Human pressure through agricultural activities is a challenging situation in the area and has caused the degradation and erosion of watersheds. This results in water pollution and sediment accumulation which is seen as a persistent threat for the site. The dam is also known as the Barrage El Haouareb. Ramsar Site no. 2010. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Barrage Oued El Hajar. 02/02/12; Nabeul; 254 ha; 36°50’N 011°02’E. One of the most recent and biggest freshwater dams in a series recently constructed in Tunisia for agricultural purposes (mainly cereal farming upstream, animal rearing on hillsides, and vegetable and tobacco cultivation downstream). It contributes to flood control during long rainy seasons. The site is an important “migratory bottleneck” for migrating birds which pass across the Mediterranian Sea, and is also a nesting and wintering ground for several waterbirds, among which are endangered and vulnerable species like Oxyura leucocephala and Marmaronetta angustirostris. In spring, it provides a resting place for several species (not only waterbirds) which migrate to Africa in winter. It harbours more than 1% of the population of several important waterbird species including Arythya nyroca, Oxyura leucocephala and Phoenicopterus roseus. A major threat is the use of fertilizers in agricultural activities carried out around the site, which may in the long run lead to eutrophication. Ramsar Site no. 2013. Most recent RIS information: 2013.

Barrage Oued Ermal. 02/02/12; Zaghouan; 620 ha; 36°20’56”N 010°20’55’E. A dam and reservoir that constitutes a vital area for several waterfowl at various critical stages of their life cycle. It is a nesting place for such waterbirds as Cattle Egret, Spoonbill, Eurasian Coot, Shoveler Ducks, Plover, Gadwall, Avocet, Black-winged Stilt, Northern Lapwing, Common Snipe, Marbled Duck, Marsh Harrier, Kingfisher, Water Pipit, Skylark, and Chiffchaff. The vegetation surrounding the site is dominated by Eucalyptus sp. The dam has a significant hydrological value as a source of irrigation for a large area immediately downstream in the plains of Bouficha. The area has important historical value due to the presence of the Roman monument “Temple des eaux”. It is threatened by the rearing of animals, which increases soil erosion and causes the destruction of the natural vegetation as well as a decrease in the quantity of water and potentially the death of fish species. Ramsar Site no. 2014. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Barrage Sidi Abdelmoneem. 02/02/12; Nabeul; 31 ha; 36°51’31”N 010°56’00”E. An artificial wetland near the tip of the Cap Bon peninsula with isolated freshwater filling up in winter as a result of rainfall and runoffs from agricultural practices. The site provides nesting opportunities for many vulnerable waterfowl species like the White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala and Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris classified as endangered and vulnerable species in the IUCN Red List. Land use is characterized by agriculture (cereals, farming on the mountain slopes, and gardening), and the main hydrological value of the site is to provide water for irrigation and contribute to groundwater recharge. The main habitats include shallow waters that host plant species Ruppia sp and Zannichellia sp as well as the edges of the water bodies colonized by a dense population of Typha cattail or bulrush. Ramsar Site no. 2016. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Chott Elguetar. 02/02/12; Gafsa; 7,400 ha; 34°17’25”N 008°54’49”E. A seasonal intermittent saline lake (chott, or sebhka) at the northern limit of the Sahara, it is a natural wetland almost in its primary state, characterized by a combination of large shallow depressions irregularly flooded. Vegetation present includes halophytes adapted to long dry periods stretching to over 5,000 ha of the site. The diversity in the vegetation is determined by the presence of water in the sites which is also very important for increasing the water table level and providing a breeding ground for water birds. The site provides habitat for a good number of threatened species, including the Scimitar Oryx Oryx dammah, Addax Addax nasomaculatus, and Dama Gazelle Gazella dama, which are critically endangered, the gazelles Gazella leptoceros and Gazella cuvier which are endangered, and Gazella dorcas, which is vulnerable. It supports several mammals throughout their life cycles, and it is a nesting and wintering ground for many waterbirds. Traces of religious and industrial activity have been found which date back 40,000 years, as well as evidence of Neolithic and Berber cultures from an early time. Ramsar Site no. 2005. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Golfe de Boughrara. 02/02/12; Medenine; 12,880 ha; 33°28’N 010°45”E. BirdLife IBA. A broad, semi-closed lagoon with a narrow connection to the sea around both sides of the Isle of Djerba; it receives water permanently from the Mediterranean as well as tidal currents from the Ajim Channel separating the mainland from Djerba in the west. The area is an exceptional site for terrestrial and marine biodiversity. It is considered to be increasingly vulnerable and fragile as a result of insufficient fresh water, shallow depth, limited water circulation, and intense evaporation as well as anthropogenic activities through indiscriminate fishing and the use of destructive fishing machines. The Posidonia Herbarium characterizing the vegetation cover favours the settlement of fish, bivalves and other species and also serves as a source of food for plankton and a breeding ground for fish species. It harbours diverse bird species during winter. Though it has been classified as an Important Bird Area (IBA), there are further potential threats to its sustainability such as organic waste disposal from animal rearing activities, phosphorus waste disposal from surrounding industries, waste water and solid wastes from the peripheries. Ramsar Site no. 2008. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Iles Kerkennah ou l’archipel de Kerkennah. 02/02/12; Sfax; 15,000 ha; 34°47’25’N 011°14’54”E. Réserve Naturelle. A flat archipelago of several islets and permanent shallow marine water at the northeastern end of the Kerkennah Islands. It is a significant wintering ground for migrating birds including waterbirds and shoreline bird species. The tufts of Neptune Grass, Posidonia Herbarium, covering the area play an important role in maintaining biodiversity as they supply oxygen and shelter for many vertebrate and invertebrate species, including aquatic species such as fish, bivalves and gastropods among others. Marine fauna in the area are also represented by sponges and mollusks and several types of tortoise. The site and surroundings are an important fishing and agricultural area with a moderately developed tourism sector; artisanal fishing is best represented by a famous, local traditional method, called charfias, using arrays of traps built from palm leaves. Potential threats include the presence of large phosphate producing industries, but it is expected that the management plan, legal steps, and creation of a marine protected area will ameliorate the situation. Ramsar Site no. 2012. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Les Gorges de Thelja. 02/02/12; Gafsa; 675 ha; 34°’23’37”N 008°20’36”E. Réserve Naturelle. A natural valley with deep ravine areas through which Thelja Wadi runs, mountainous and arid in the chain of the djebels of the Saharan Atlas (altitude 210-450 m). The valley extends through several kilometers along the very sinuous Thelja and is a landscape of unique tourist attraction in Tunisia, with its famous Red Lizard train journey from al-Mitlawi (Metlaoui) with renovated train cars from the phosphate mining. The site includes Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos as well as the lizard Uromastyx acanthinura, which has a high capacity to live in desert conditions. The site is potentially threatened by pollution as a result of the mining activities carried out upstream and constructions related to tourism, but it is part of a presidential programme created in 2009 to preserve the mountain, wadi, and gallery biotopes to reinforce the biological diversity, encourage ecological tourism, and support scientific research and tourism. Ramsar Site no. 2009. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Marais d’eau douce Garaet Douza. 02/02/12; Gafsa; 1,400 ha; 34°28’N 008°29’E. A seasonal freshwater marsh surrounded by a circle of mountains which give it a wonderful landscape. It is a good site for the promotion of Saharan ecotourism in the country, as it is a natural wetland that has not been adversely affected by agriculture and harbours a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna. The site is home to species dependent on pre-desert ecosystems, such as Cream-colored Courser Cursorius cursor or Black-bellied Sandgrouse Pterocles orientalis. It is also a habitat of several species typical of the Mediterranean biome/North Africa, including the Greater Hoopoe-Lark Alaemon alaudipes and the Mourning Wheatear Oenanthe lugens. Rainwater is retained at the site in autumn and winter attracts waterbirds and provides the necessary conditions for wintering and nesting. Potentially adverse factors are mainly overgrazing and poaching. Ramsar Site no. 2007. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Oued Dekouk. 02/02/12; Tataouine; 5,750 hectares; 32°09’N 010°32’E. Réserve Naturelle. A rare permanent freshwater source in the Mediterranean biome favoring the presence of animal and plant species and sheltering the IUCN red-listed vulnerable Barbary Sheep Ammotragus lervia. The site hosts several other species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals at critical stages of their life cycles including reproduction; juvenile and lactation in mammals. The site is managed as a nature reserve by the state; it has important potential for ecotourism with its remarkable landscapes (wadis, scenic cliffs, and large dunes) and extensive, typical flora and fauna. Potential threats to the wetland include pollution (polluting industries located at close proximities) and the negative impacts of human activities on the site. Ramsar Site no. 2011. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Salines de Monastir. 02/02/12; Monastir; 1,000 ha; 35°45’N 010°46’E. BirdLife IBA. A permanent wetland with variable salinity and nutrient value favoring the presence of scavenger fish species, comprising a saline coastal lagoon between the cities of Monastir and Sousse, connected to the sea by two relatively broad channels and bounded on the seaward side by the international airport . It is a natural salt marsh and a representative example of the rare Western Palearctic wetland type. The wetland is home to populations of fish and algae and important for biodiversity conservation as well as for wintering, nesting and permanently resident seabirds, and thus it is a natural waterbird refuge, especially for species such as Tadorna Tadorna, Himantopus Himantopus and Recurvirostra avocet, and supports the Yellow-legged Gull Larus cachinnans and the little tern Sterna albifrons. The site is a source of food (algae and organic matter) to fishes and plays a role in the retention and disposal of water during floods. It is threatened by pollution from several sources, including tourism, transport and industry. Ramsar Site no. 2015. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed. 02/02/12; Sousse; 1,450 ha; 35°59’23”N 010°30’10”E. BirdLife IBA. A coastal saline lagoon that is representative of an almost natural sebkha, a characteristic wetland type in the semi-arid region of the Tunisian Sahel. It contributes significantly in maintaining the biodiversity characteristics of its biogeographical region as it serves as a habitat for biologically important species such as the vulnerable Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris. It is a wintering and nesting ground for birds and also an important source of food and a spawning ground for fishes such as Mugil sp. and Lisa sp. The site also supports several animal species throughout their life cycles. Fishery activities and aquaculture are carried out by the people of the area to sustain livelihoods, and water from the lagoon is used for animal rearing nearby. Strategic measures of erosion control have been put in place through the planting of forest trees (particularly Acacias) around the lake. The main hydrological value of the wetland is the absorption of flood waters, which are sometimes violent, from the large tributary wadis. Ramsar Site no. 2006. Most recent RIS information: 2011.

Sebkhet Sidi Elhani. 02/02/12; Sousse, Mahdia; 36,000 ha; 35°34’N 010°24’E. BirdLife IBA. An extensive salt lake where the water is intermittent, characteristic of the Tunisian Sahel semi-arid, almost natural ecosystem that contributes to the maintenance of biological diversity of the Western Palearctic. Fed by several rivers (Wadis Chrita, Mansoura, and Om El Melah), the site hosts plant species such as Arthrocnemum sp., Salicornia sp. and Suaeda sp. and avian species such as Phoenicopterus roseus, Charadrius alexandrinus, Anas clypeata and Grus grus. As an Important Bird Area, the area is habitat for the crustacean Artemia salina which is of great interest as food for birds and some aquaculture species. The main hydrological value of the site is the absorption of sometimes violent floods from its large tributaries, and the watershed also captures a large quantity of sediment and plays an important role in recharging the groundwater and wells. The main economic activity around the lake is the animal rearing. Ramsar Site no. 2019. Most recent RIS information: 2011

Source: Ramsar Secretariat

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Research at the NOROCK is focused on developing sound energy barriers to prevent the expansion of two types of invasive Asian Carp in the Great Lakes ecosystem, bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). Preliminary experiments have been conducted on Asian carp and non-target organisms to evaluate behavioral and physiological responses to the sound energy levels produced by water guns. Studies in 2011 are directed at the establishment of stationary and mobile barriers and the characterization of frequencies and energy levels that will divert Asian carp in the Chicago Sanitary and Shipping Canal.

In the 1960’s oil exploration companies began towing seismic air gun technology behind large vessels to explore the composition of the ocean floor using pulse pressure technology. Later in the early 1980s the water gun was developed to generate a cleaner signal by eliminating the interference produced by the air gun. Though water guns were developed as an alternate means of seismic exploration they were quickly discontinued because they were less efficient at producing low frequency energy and there were concerns about their effect on aquatic life. Today, it is those same properties of water guns that may provide the means to establish an acoustic barrier deterrent for Asian carp.

Pulse pressure technology is currently being evaluated as a means to control other aquatic invasive species throughout the US. The USGS along with the US Bureau of Reclamation is conducting studies with water guns and air guns. This research is exploring the feasibility of using these technologies to mitigate the effects of biofouling organisms such as quagga mussels (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis) and zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) on hydropower production. Researchers are assessing the capability of pulse pressure to remove attached mussels from substrate or even prevent settlement on water delivery and hydropower structures. The USGS and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game are also evaluating the use of water guns as a means of suppression to control invasive Northern pike (Esox lucius) in order to protect and conserve Pacific salmonids. These studies will expand our knowledge of water gun technology and other potential uses for the protection of our infrastructure and the conservation of our fishery resources.

Why Water Guns?

Water guns offer three mechanisms by which to deter carp: 1) the use of sound at frequencies Asian carp hear, 2) a pressure wave, and 3) two high velocity water jets.

Water Gun graphic by USGS

The water gun signature is short and clean compared to that of the air gun (Figure 1). The water gun has a low amplitude precursor pulse that is followed by the main implosion which produces a large positive spike. This is followed by a similarly shaped negative peak as the pulse is reflected off of the water’s surface. After this the pressure quickly stabilizes.

The water gun operates as a low energy, implosive source which produces a short, bubble-free pulse (Figure 2). The implosion of the cavity is created by the jet of high-pressure water expelled from the gun. These guns have dual chamber/piston assembly. Upon firing the gun high-pressure air in the upper chamber propels the firing piston into the lower chamber which then ejects the water through the ports at the base of the gun. When the piston decelerates a cavity is formed behind the expelled water. The main acoustic pulse is created when this cavity implodes due to the surrounding hydrostatic pressure.

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Even a short visit to Cambodia earlier this month is sufficient to underline why Prime Minister Hun Sen has been so ready over many years to describe China as his country’s best friend. Discussion of China’s aid to the country is a constant in almost every conversation.

In December 2011 Hun Sen inaugurated a major 103 MW dam at Kamchay in Kampot province built by Sinohydro, one of the largest Chinese construction groups, the latest major infrastructure project built with Chinese assistance at a cost of US$208 million.

Ramsar Site 999 - Just North of Stung Treng on The Mekong River. Pic: Mouth to Source

In preceding years (and as Hun Sen always insists, ‘without strings’) Chinese aid to Cambodia has ranged from the construction of a bridge over the Se San River in Stung Treng province, through road construction, to the provision of military vehicles and uniforms for the Cambodia army. In May 2010 alone China committed itself to total aid of US$1.2 billion in grants and loans at a time when a US shipment of military vehicles had been frozen.

With the Kamchay dam completed, there are plans for two more Chinese-built dams in the Cardamom Mountains of Pursat province. Like Kamchay, their construction will be for the generation of hydroelectricity, but unlike Kamchay, the proposed dams will be sited on rivers that eventually flow into the Mekong River system. This raises familiar concerns about the degradation of fish stocks, an issue that has been at the heart of the opposition to the construction of the Xayaburi dam on the Mekong’s mainstream.

For the moment, dams on the Mekong’s mainstream have been held at bay, but the new environmental battleground is going to be what happens on the Mekong’s tributaries. The most contentious proposed dam is not one with Chinese involvement; this is the proposed dam on the Se San River in Stung Treng province, with proposed funding coming from Electricite du Vietnam and the Cambodian conglomerate, the Royal Group.

Bag of fish on sale early morning market - Stung Treng - Cambodia Pic: Mouth to Source

Arguments for and against each of these projects boil down to whether the generation of hydroelectricity is more important than preserving wild rivers for the fish found in them. So far as the proposed Se Sam dam is concerned, Hun Sen has made his judgment, stating that ‘the Se San and Sre Pok Rivers are not the source for fish breeding for fisheries across Cambodia’.

Although China has a ‘flavour of the decade’ character, there is no doubt the Cambodian Government has hopes for greater American involvement in its economy too.

Bayon Temple and catapult Pic: Mouth to Source

My travel through Cambodia was in the company of a group of senior American businessmen for whom the Cambodian Government pulled out every stop: a reception in the new Peace Palace in Phnom Penh, the presence of Deputy Prime Minister Sok An at a formal dinner, and to top it all, dinner under the stars by a flood-lit Bayon temple in the Angkor Archeological Park. This was a welcome that went beyond mere courtesy.

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Study puts economic value on the indirect ecosystem services provided by the world’s poorest people

Some of the world’s poorest people would be half a trillion dollars a year better off if the services they provide to the rest of the planet indirectly – through conserving natural habitats – was given an economic value, a new study has found.

Many of these valuable habitats and species are under threat, but the people who live in these areas lack the means to improve their conservation, according to a new study in the journal BioScience.

If poor people were paid for the services they provide in preserving some of the world’s key biodiversity hotspots, they could reap $500bn. There are some fledgling schemes that could help to raise this cash – for instance, the United Nations-backed system called Redd (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation), which uses carbon trading to generate cash to preserve trees – but so far they are small in scale.

The benefits of safeguarding these habitats, such as providing valuable services from food, medicines and clean water to absorbing carbon dioxide from the air, are more than triple the costs of conserving them, the researchers found.

Will Turner, vice–president of Conservation International and lead author of the study, said: “Developed and developing economies cannot continue to ask the world’s poor to shoulder the burden of protecting these globally important ecosystem services for the rest of the world’s benefit, without compensation in return. This is exactly what we mean when we talk about valuing natural capital. Nature may not send us a bill, but its essential services and flows, both direct and indirect, have concrete economic value.”

He said that preserving areas of highest biodiversity should be the priority. “What the research clearly tells us is that conserving the world’s remaining biodiversity isn’t just a moral imperative – it is a necessary investment for lasting economic development. But in many places where the poor depend on these natural services, we are dangerously close to exhausting them, resulting in lasting poverty,” said Turner.

Many of the benefits of conservation, so-called “ecosystem services”, are invisible – for instance, maintaining wooded land can help to prevent mudslides during heavy rainfall, and provides valuable watersheds that keep rivers healthy and provide clean drinking water, as well as absorbing carbon dioxide from the air. These benefits are not assigned an economic value, however, so that chopping down trees or destroying habitats appears to deliver an instant economic return, when in fact it is leading to economic losses that are only obvious when it is too late.

The study, entitled Global Biodiversity Conservation and the Alleviation of Poverty, was led by a team from Conservation International, and co-authored by scientists at NatureServe, the US National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. They looked in particular at 17 of the world’s most important areas for biodiversity.

They found that some of the ecosystem services accrued to the local people themselves – for instance, using forests as sources of food, medicines and shelter – while the rest are regional or global.

The study follows on a growing body of work from the past decade that has sought to place a value on ecosystem services, as a way of ensuring that they are accounted for in economic policy. If nature is not economically valued, many scientists have argued, it is more prone to being destroyed.

Russell Mittermeier, president of Conservation International and a co-author, said: “We have always known that biodiversity is foundational to human wellbeing, but we now have a strong case that ecosystems specifically located in the world’s biodiversity hotspots and high-biodiversity wilderness areas also provide a vital safety net for people living in poverty. Protecting these places is essential not only to safeguard life on earth but also to support the impoverished, ensure continued broad access to nature’s services, and meet the UN millennium development goals.”

He called on governments to integrate the conservation of nature into economic and poverty-alleviation policies, in order to value these services better.

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New Construction Prompts Radical Intervention in Brazilian Amazon

Altamira, Brazil – Major construction on the Belo Monte Dam commenced on the Xingu River during Brazil’s New Year holidays, signaling a new phase in the Brazilian government’s intentions to sidestep environmental legislation and human rights conventions to build the world’s third largest hydroelectric dam in the heart of the Amazon. The project’s first blockades of the river, known as coffer dams, are being built to dry out a stretch of the river, allowing for its permanent damming. Today local protestors paralyzed construction at the dam site, affirming that resistance to the project is far from over.



Today’s protests centered on Belo Monte’s Pimental work site, where protestors denounced “unprecedented crimes” of the Brazilian government against the Amazon and its people. Organized by the Movimento Xingu Vivo para Sempre (Xingu Forever Alive Movement)-a grassroots coalition of social movements, indigenous groups, and NGOs-the protest included fishermen, farmers, students and other groups that are suffering the impacts of the Belo Monte Dam project. 



The protestors arrived at the dam site by boat, unfurling banners in front of the coffer dams with slogans such as “Belo Monte: crime of the Federal Government”, blocking the movement of workers and machinery, and paralyzing construction for over two hours. The protestors spoke peacefully with construction workers, explaining the motivations for the protest.

“Despite the criminal operations that are Belo Monte, where the Brazilian government is spending billions to devastate the Xingu while creating a situation of complete chaos among local communities, we will continue to resist this monstrosity and work to call attention of the Brazilian public and the world that this wanton destruction of the Amazon will hurt us all,” said Antônia Melo, coordinator of the Xingu Vivo movement. “To take away the river is to take away the life of its people, because water is life.” 


The first of three coffer dams, which are earthen walls built to dry out stretches of the river to open the way for dam construction, will connect the left bank of the Xingu to Pimental Island in the middle of the river. The Norte Energia (NESA) dam-building consortium has also begun to raze the jungle on the island after receiving authorization from the federal environmental agency IBAMA to clear cut over 5,000 hectares of rainforest.

Local residents were not previously informed by the government-led NESA consortium of the impending construction of the coffer dams, initiated soon after the New Year. Instead, they were alerted by a Xingu River tinged with red mud and the thundering of dynamite exploding in construction areas. 


“When we learned what they were doing, it practically killed us with sadness,” said Josinei Arara, a member of a threatened Arara indigenous community 10 miles downstream on the Xingu from the Pimental dam site. “The dam builders have kept none of their promises to compensate our village; in the meantime, they’re assassinating our river.” 



Outraged with the muddying of water they rely upon for drinking, cooking, and bathing, the Arara denounced NESA’s pollution of the river to Brazil’s Federal Public Ministry this week, also citing the clear deficiency of legally-mandated mitigation measures. 


If construction continues, the Belo Monte Dam complex will divert 80% of the Xingu River’s flow into an artificial canal and reservoir, devastating a riverine ecosystem of unique beauty and biodiversity, as well as the livelihoods of three indigenous tribes and other traditional communities.

“The building of coffer dams, traversing one of the main channels of the Xingu, is already a major intervention in the riverine ecosystem” said Brent Millikan of International Rivers. “Besides destroying habitats and interfering in the river’s hydrology, coffer dams create obstacles for local boat transportation and the movements of fish.”

The Rousseff administration has remained obstinate in pushing ahead with Belo Monte, ignoring criticisms from scientists, legal experts, religious figures, artists and street protests throughout Brazil and the world. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, linked to the Organization of American States, was scoffed by the Brazilian government when it issued precautionary measures issued by the to ensure consultations with indigenous peoples and protection of their rights. Meanwhile the Rousseff administration has pressured judges to stall or overturn legal actions against Belo Monte, while intimidating federal public prosecutors that issued them. The Belo Monte Dam is one of the first of dozens of large dams planned for construction in the Amazon by the Brazilian government.

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Media Contacts:

Brent Millikan, International Rivers, +55 61 8153 7009, brent@internationalrivers.org
Christian Poirier, Amazon Watch, +1 510 666 7565, christian@amazonwatch.org
Caroline Bennett, Amazon Watch, +1 415 487 9600, caroline@amazonwatch.org

Visit International Rivers

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International water scientists today issued a call for action over the growing threat to the world’s groundwater supplies from over-extraction and pollution.

Water supplies will begin running out in critical regions where they support cities, industries and food production by 2030 unless urgent steps are taken to better manage the resource, they cautioned.

“The world has experienced a boom in groundwater use, more than doubling the rate of extraction between 1960 and 2000 – with usage continuing to soar up to the present,” says Professor Craig Simmons, Director of Australia’s National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training (NCGRT) and member of the UNESCO’s global groundwater governance program.

A recent satellite study has revealed falling groundwater tables in the United States, North Africa, India, the Middle East and China, where expanding agriculture has increased water demand.

“Groundwater currently makes up about 97 per cent of all the available fresh water on the planet and presently accounts for about 40 per cent of our total water supply. It provides drinking water to cities, is needed to grow much of our food and sustains many industries – yet almost everywhere, there is clear evidence that water tables are falling,” Professor Simmons says. “This means humanity is extracting groundwater much faster than it is naturally replaced.”

“Not many people think of groundwater as a key driver of the global economy – yet it is. If it becomes depleted, entire industries may be forced to shut down or move. Whole regions could face acute water scarcity.”

The groundwater crisis is driven by a competition for increasingly scarce water supplies between the megacities, the energy sector, manufacturing and farming. It has been hastened by an era of cheap pumps and relatively cheap energy, making it easy to extract.

“Over-extraction also has serious implications for the environment, especially when the climate is warming – as falling water tables can lead to emptying lakes and rivers and dying landscapes as the water they depended on is withdrawn,” Professor Simmons says.

“The blunt fact is that most countries and local regions did not know the size of their water resources when then began extracting them, nor how long it took to recharge. In some cases this can take centuries or even millennia. As a result they are now extracting their water unsustainably.”

Water is emerging as potentially one of the main limits to Chinese economic growth: groundwater supplies 40% of China’s food and 70% of its drinking water – yet water levels in aquifers in some regions are sinking by a metre or more a year. 660 Chinese cities have polluted supplies or are water insecure.

In the Middle East, depleted aquifers have been a major driver of the relocation of agriculture to Africa and the so-called ‘land-grab’ by wealthy countries. In India the number of wells grew from less than one million in 1960 to 19 million by 2000. Water tables in the key foodbowl are sinking beyond the reach of many farmers’ pumps.

“The crisis in global groundwater is chiefly one of poor governance, exacerbated by a lack of knowledge of the size and condition of the resource, rates of recharge, lack of transparent policy, lack of ownership, lack of price signals to users and a lack of political will to do anything,” says Professor Simmons. “It’s fixable – but it will take a lot of hard work and good science to do so.”

“Until recently this problem was on the world’s back-burner – but it is rapidly moving to the forefront. Groundwater science has improved dramatically in the last decade, giving us the ability to measure and manage the resource – but governance has yet to catch up. Unless it does, we can expect serious problems in the future.”

Even advanced nations such as the United States face a crisis in their use of groundwater, says Law Professor Robert Glennon of the University of Arizona.

“Groundwater now comprises one-quarter of the US supply and more than half of all Americans rely on groundwater for drinking. Unconstrained drilling of new wells, as many as 800,000 per year, has put incredible strain on aquifers around the US,” he says.

“Plummeting groundwater tables have caused earth subsidence, fissures, and saltwater intrusion. It took millennia for this water to accumulate in aquifers, but humans are pumping it out in mere decades.”

The environmental costs of unsustainable groundwater pumping are staggering, says Glennon. Rivers and springs have dried up or been reduced to a trickle. In Arizona, pumping turned a healthy river, the Santa Cruz, into a desiccated sandbox. Even in humid regions, water bodies have suffered. In the Midwest, wells dug to produce spring water for the bottled water industry have compromised blue-ribbon trout streams. And in Florida, scores of lakes have dried up from intense well-field pumping.

The lack of sensible regulation has created incentives for unlimited access to a finite resource, according to Glennon. “An aquifer is like a milkshake glass and each well is the equivalent of a straw in the glass. What most countries permit is a limitless number of straws in the glass. This is a recipe for disaster,” he says

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MEDIA NOTE: Leading international groundwater experts will gather in Sydney later this month (Jan 23-27) to review Australian research in the field. Media are welcome to interview them.

MORE INFORMATION: Professor Craig Simmons, Director NCGRT, ph +61 (0)405 184 645 Laki Kondylas, NCGRT, ph +61 (0)414 190 011 Emily Heylen, NCGRT media contact, +61 (0)8 8201 2193; emily.heylen@flinders.edu.au

Web: www.groundwater.com.au

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The horse barbel, Barbus tyberinus, is severely impacted by introduced species, and is now categorised as Near Threatened. Photo © J. Freyhof.

The Red List is: “a review of the conservation status of around 6,000 European species, including dragonflies, butterflies, freshwater fishes, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and selected groups of beetles, molluscs, and vascular plants, according to IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the regional level – in order that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status. This Red List publication summarizes the results for all described native European freshwater fishes and lampreys (hereafter referred to as just freshwater fishes)(vii).”

A review of 531 freshwater fish species across Europe yielded the main finding that:

“Overall, at least 37% of Europe’s freshwater fishes are threatened at a continental scale, and 39% are threatened at the EU 27 level. A further 4% of freshwater fishes are considered Near Threatened. This is one of the highest threat levels of any major taxonomic group assessed to date for Europe. The conservation status of Europe’s eight sturgeon species is particularly worrying: all but one are Critically Endangered (vii)”

In short, freshwater fish are amongst the most vulnerable taxonomic group in Europe, with a number close to extinction. This is a worrying conclusion, and one that calls for rapid and effective freshwater conservation work. The main threats to European freshwater fish were identified as pollution, water abstraction, overfishing, dam construction and the introduction of alien species. The authors call for stronger and more effective political protection for freshwater fish (e.g. through the EU Habitats Directive), and better conservation management for freshwaters (e.g. through the use of Key Biodiversity Areas).

The authors advise that: “In order to improve the conservation status of European freshwater fishes and to reverse their decline, ambitious conservation actions are urgently needed. In particular: ensuring adequate protection and management of key freshwater habitats and of their surrounding areas, drawing up and implementing Species Action Plans for the most threatened species, establishing monitoring and ex-situ programmes, finding appropriate means to limit further alien species introductions, especially by anglers, and revising national and European legislation, adding species identified as threatened where needed. (viii)”

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Visit Biofresh

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